Dong Qichang, in the Shade of Summer Trees, 17th Century, Ming Dynasty

This painting is from the Ming Dynasty, and very clearly depicts and captures the essence of The Southern School, or Literati painters. The first thing to note is the overall composition of the painting. First and foremost it is a landscape painting. The colors are very monochrome; the space is stretched to reveal a depth to the painting that the eye cannot capture; and there is stillness to the art that embraces nature and serenity of life. In the right-hand corner of the painting there is calligraphy. The calligraphy lacks the precision, but is very clear in its form, much like the depiction within the painting itself. There are three men in the painting. The men are at ease and are almost lost in the painting. The men do not seem distinct from their surroundings but rather just another natural element in the bigger picture. The men are in poses that do not suggest positions that can be held for long periods of time, but rather only a moment. The men appear to be marveling at their surroundings as they look out into the vast wilderness. Above them, and hidden behind trees, there is a building. Just like the men, the nature and trees overwhelm the structure itself, clearly defining the more important and powerful of the two. Just below the men, there is a waterfall. The water appears to be making its way downward winding its way through the clusters of rocks. Water, representing the source of life, flows in this painting with great force, capturing the vitality and life of an individual moment in nature. This painting possesses a narrative emphasizing nature and the life that exists beyond human existence. It is the influence of nature on the human and not the influence of the human on nature. While the painting lacks the formal resemblance we recognize from photographs or our own perception, there is an overall impression that the viewer is left with: a true introduction to nature, and an intimate glimpse into a particular moment. The painting takes what the eye can see and extends it further, to a realm that cannot be captured by someone unless they have the patience and diligence to see beyond the obvious and capture more than the eye permits. Dong Qichang is revealing his discovery of nature and its importance and relevance to himself at a particular moment in time. There is an inner truth and realization that is depicted with every stroke of the brush and as each different element is unveiled, a different realization of life and nature is put down as a record. After attempting to emulate the techniques of Dong Qichang, and create a literati painting using the California scenery, I have realized many things. One is that I would never make it as a painter. The other things revolve around the life of the painting. The painting seems to resonate with a vitality that is captured through the depiction of a moment in time. The wind moves all the trees, and forces them to take on a life of their own and assume a position that seizes a particular moment, even though the layout and the trees themselves seem to lack the likeness to what we would expect to see in nature. The water is caught in a single moment, and we can see the life in it as it tries to get past the rocks and settle below. We know that the water is only in that particular position for a miniscule amount of time, and we can see that the painting truly captures a very distinct and precise time. The painting shows three men, one of whom is lifting his arm to point to something in the distance, and all three men follow with their heads to the direction of his arm. This is also capturing a single moment in time, and the painting serves as the record for a past event that will never be again, and captures emotions distinct to that moment, that will probably never be felt in the same way again. We can see the instantaneous placement of the cloud creating a fog and with it an illusion of something that is unknown and mysterious. This moment is captured so expertly before the fog can be burned away, or hidden by night, or pushed away with the wind. There is also emptiness in the painting. I did not realize this until I started to try to do a landscape drawing of my own. While the emptiness lacks any objects, it seems to have, or be, purposeful in the painting. It represents something, and is a source to the elements in the painting. It could be the wind that is moving the trees, or gravity that is causing the water to fall. The empty part of the picture seems to hold significance to the individual perspective and time of the painting. The artist’s personal feelings and reasoning once again captured and recorded in the painting. All of this being said, the question of how much of the painting is natural and how much of the painting is artifice arises. I think that the best way to tackle this question is from the largest perspective, and narrowing thereafter. That which the painting references is natural, and that which is within the painting is natural, but the composition and interaction between the different elements is artifice. Everything within the painting draws on what is natural: trees, water, rocks, mountains, clouds, humans, etc. It is how these elements interact with each other and with the canvas that enriches the painting with artifice. The interaction between the artist’s thoughts and emotions and nature, are so intertwined that the painting almost masks the artist’s true feelings with the natural behaviors of the elements. It is when the viewer steps back and looks at the whole painting, that one is able to appreciate the importance this painting plays as a record to an individual moment- both for the artist and its muse, nature.

Reading Books Is Better Than Watching TV Essay

Books had existed on this planet thousands of years before TV was. They are both valuable and have their own advantage. However, people tend to favor books more. Books are always the number one choice for learning and researching, especially if you are studying a subject. Even though it takes time and a lot of effort to read and research a particular topic. Books are the original databases that are always trustworthy. Even advanced computer databases such as Wikipedia do not have all the required information you needed, but if they did they can sometime be false info. Furthermore, if you have a book, you could read it and re-read it all over again until you fully understand the book. However, advanced technology such as the televisions do not enabled you to do such things. Secondly, books are compact and you can take them anywhere you go. Reading books on transport is a good way to use up time and to relax. Scientist had found out that reading books actually help you to reduce stress and you will learn faster. Reading books actually does a better job than computer games when it comes to relaxing our minds. With the appearance of e-book nowadays, the advantages of book are expanding further. Nothing is more convenience than carrying hundreds of book in a portable tablet. Reading books is good, but televisions are making it easier for us to gather information by hearing. Nowadays, there is no need to read the newspapers since it takes a lot efforts and time. Instead of reading the whole newspaper, which could take a whole day, watching TV only takes half an hour. Same information, but quicker. In conclusion, reading book is better than watching TV because it can help you remember information longer. On the other hand, watching TV helps us to gather information faster than reading a book.

Similarities between colonization of Jamaica( west Indies) and Essay - 1

Similarities between colonization of Jamaica( west Indies) and gentrification in Newark , jersey - Essay Example t up their colony base in West Indies (Cheng 50) The colonization was characterized by slavery exchanged through slave trade and brutal working conditions in the British owned sugar plantations in the better part of the 17th and 18th century before Jamaica finally attended her independence in 1962 which saw an end to the British rule in the Caribbean island. Gentrification in New Jersey back in the 1980’s can be seen to have similarities with the Jamaican colonization because of the oppressive nature to the less fortunate in society (Lees, Slater &Wyly22). Gentrification in Newark was characterized by the poor class which mainly consisted of blacks to be fazed out of â€Å"white† inhabited areas initially inhabited by the African Americans. This brings about the similarity in that the less fortunate are oppressed based on based on their races, culture and social status. Colonization in Jamaica and gentrification in Newark, New Jersey is majorly characterized by racial discrimination based on the races of the parties involved. In the 18th century the blacks who are the Jamaicans were oppressed by the colonization of the whites who were British. Their rights were curtailed and inhumane acts done on the blacks who were treated as slaves (Giovas&Flitzpatrick 573). The island acted as a harbor for the slaves who later rebelled to gain independence from the British. Gentrification in Newark was characterized by the racial aspect in that whites moved into black inhabited neighborhoods and because of the racial superiority perception the livelihood of the Americans were made almost impossible because of the high standards of living that were brought along by the â€Å"whites† who are mainly made of high class and middle class levels forcing the poor class out of the â€Å"neighborhoods†. A form of rebellion from the parties that appear oppres sed seems to be eminent which in the two cases consists of â€Å"blacks† who feel their rights have been violated through the actions

X Teams Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

X Teams - Article Example The measures will ensure the operations remains intact should the unexpected happen. They provide clear guideline to follow in such situation. The X Team Model provides a dynamic exclusive criterion that enhances success of firms operations amidst difficult periods. Solid, reliable relations within the firm and outside with the public’s creates trust within the organizational vicinity. Appealing public relations with other firms creates an environment that favours growth. Unity within the organizational personnel encourages sharing of ideas hence enhancing creativity resulting to innovation and inventions. It also creates new synergies taking advantages of external opportunities counteracting any probable threats. Three phases of exploration, exploitation, and exportation enable firm keep in pace with its competitors. It enhances solving of complex problems using simple innovative ideas. Organizational teams will link up with external environment potentiating production of new goods and services. Leadership distribution enables organization to harness leadership capabilities existing in the firm. This accelerates the innovation and change process. Top leaders liaise with other managers orienting them fully on ways to manage projects, initiatives to monitor and evaluate organizational progress, effective decision-making, and conflict solving skills. In conclusion, all these processes provide a well-distributed chain of relationship that encourages growth and invention making development a reality in organization. All stakeholders are involved hence teamwork. This results to organizational preparedness strategies

Motivational Issues In Modern Management Term Paper

Motivational Issues In Modern Management - Term Paper Example Having an open door policy in an organization makes all employees feel at ease. When management encourages staff to feel at ease in the office, it creates an atmosphere that is conducive to work in. Communicating in an informal basis to the juniors helps them feel that you are part of their team thus encourages them to involve the management more in their work. Building employee confidence is crucial as this finally trickles down to the kind of results they produce. Offering feedback and information on a project, or encouragement to employees instills confidence in them. Meeting employee’s needs in areas such as, good working conditions, offering reasonable salaries, and job security all help in job satisfaction. Most employees have targets which they have set for themselves, getting to know employee’s better helps the managers establish the type of targets to give to a person, as well as identify their strengths and weaknesses. Laming (2004) argues that motivation can be done by setting targets that are achievable to an individual. However, this does not mean that a more experienced staff should be given a task that they are sure to meet easily since it does not help them in personal growth. For a more experienced staff, a more challenging task they have never encountered before drives them into being more creative and innovative, hence helps boost their confidence too. Therefore, the tasks given have to be realistic, specific, and tangible. This helps them into putting more effort to the task at hand. It enhances job satisfaction and offers opportunities for job advancements and promotions (Laming, 2004). Targets equally help employees know exactly what is expected of them. Therefore, empowering employees is very important as it helps them advance and improve their quality of life. Management should concentrate on making work more interesting to their staff. Job enrichment cuts back on workers feeling dissatisfied with their jobs. This improves the atmosphere of the workplace and employees tend to be more responsible (Donald, 2004). However, this means that the company has to incur expenses in training the staff members who lack the proper skills. Nevertheless, the training is beneficial to both the employee and employer, as the staff can be given more responsibilities as they already have acquired training. Job rotation should highly be considered as it helps an employee gain more knowledge of the processes of the company. This means that at any given time, there is always someone on standby able to do the job in case a member of staff is unavailable. However, this means that some employees have to be taken away from their usual tasks so as to acquire more training on more duties and responsibilities. Appraisals are a good way of assessing and improving employee’s performance. The appraisals work in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of employees, therefore, investing more time on their strengths. Companies l ike Apple motivate their staff by giving them time to work on a creation of their choice once a week (Reeve, 2009). In return, new innovations are often created. This gives the employees ownership of the creation, and encourages them create more innovations. Praising employees during public events is a good way to boost their motivation and self esteem. This shows that management values the work one is

Analysis of a Healthcare Lawsuit Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of a Healthcare Lawsuit - Case Study Example Eric H. Holder Jr., the defendant as the United States Attorney General is directly responsible for the implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of the Health Care and Reconciliation amendment passed by the US President Barrack Obama on the 23rd of March 2010 (Mead v. Holder‎, 2011). According to section 1501, it requires every American to buy a health care policy from any private company or institution if he/she can afford to do so. This clause will force thousands of American citizens to forcefully buy an insurance policy from many banks and companies and if they fail to do so and do not pass the individual mandate, they will have to face a penalty and would have to pay the government with a penalty known as the Shared Responsibility payment. This penalty may also be applicable over the individual’s spouse or dependent family members. The payment for the Health Care insurance Policy and the Shared responsibility are excluding taxes. The Shared Responsibility payment, if continued would also continue to increase every year. This law will also be forcefully applied on the 62-year old American Citizen, Miss Margaret Peggy Lee Mead, who is a self-employed Single American citizen living in the State of North Carolina. She also works part time and is not eligible for Medicare. However, Miss Mead is also not under any exemption of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and is also not exempted from the Shared Responsibility payment she would have to pay over the years to the government consequently. The Plaintiff would have to pay a Shared Responsibility Payment of around $3,895 to the government by 2020 in different installments per year if she does not opt for a Health Care and Insurance policy from any private entity as per the individual mandate enforced by the act. Miss Mead is under direct enforcement of the act and is under no exemption. This enforcement would

The friendship of Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin Essay

The friendship of Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin - Essay Example The essay "The friendship of Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin" discovers the relationships between Paul Gauguin and Vincent Van Gogh. The other anticipation that Gauguin had was that he could establish a more intimate painting connection with Van Gogh, and out of it they could bring their painting talent together to create other a successful painting empire, like the two sunflowers painting that Van Gogh had created. In this respect, Gauguin anticipated that he could tap on his friend’s talent and make some impressive paintings during this vacation. The last of his anticipation was that he would continue building on his friendship with Van Gogh and his brother Theo, owing to the fact that Van Gogh had invited and waited for Gauguin for long, while Theo was the one who encouraged him to visit the Yellow House. The expectations that Paul Gauguin had while visiting Van Gogh was that out of their friendship and combined efforts, success for the two relatively new yet older artist s would spark a more beautiful life for the two of them, owing the fact that both had shared a similarity in living a depressed life previously. When he arrived at Van Gogh’s house, things turned out to be different, since the anticipated happiness and the cordial relationship they sought to create did not come about. The friendly connections lasted a little while, and then arguments between them started drawing them apart, as they could neither agree on the locations where they should paint, nor the mode of painting to adapt.

The Case for Literature-Based Reading Programmes at the Elementary Essay

The Case for Literature-Based Reading Programmes at the Elementary School Level - Essay Example The publication of children's literature has increased substantially and its incorporation into reading programmes has also increased significantly (Harris, 1992). At the same time, there has been a simultaneous interest in literature-based reading instruction. Nonetheless, the importance and the usefulness of children's literature have been questioned. The nature of these attacks, however, seem to have less to do with the value of the instructional approaches and substantive materials than a preoccupation with preparing students for standardized tests and a stubborn adherence to traditional methods. Of particular concern is the use of children's literature as a means for teaching children how to decode information in order to perform better on standardized tests. This instructional method, without more, neglects the very purposes of literature-based reading instruction and renders the inclusion of children's literature in elementary reading programmes an almost tangential inclusion. The strict emphasis on decoding and on standardized testing, while of some relevance to literacy, is harming the very goals and usefulness of literature-based reading instruction. This essay will argue that the inclusion of children's literature is of fundamental importance to effective reading programmes at the elementary school level. ... As a preliminary matter, it is essential to identify the theoretical foundations of literature-based reading instruction. This is because the mere inclusion of literature in a reading programme, without a corresponding shift in instructional methods, may defeat or diminish the very purposes of the programme. Serafini argues that in order for elementary teachers to implement a quality literature-based reading program and make a substantial shift in the way that children's literature is used in the curriculum, they must first make a parallel shift in the theoretical perspectives they use to ground their practice. Without this parallel shift, teachers may simply change the materials they use to teach reading, relegating children's literature to an instructional device in the service of higher test scores. In order to make a shift, however, one must first understand what the theoretical perspectives are and how they influence classroom practice (2003, np). The modernist approach to reading and literacy is a major obstacle to more comprehensive literature-based reading goals. This approach begins with the premise that the meaning of a text is located solely within that text. This is an extraordinarily limited and strict perception of reading. In short, there is one true meaning in the text and children are required to decipher or decode this meaning from the text. This type of reading perspective excludes an interactive approach to the text; more troubling, perhaps, is the fact that it subordinates rather completely the context in which the text is examined and enjoyed. This type of approach is typically implemented as part of a reading skills programme. Teachers teach students how to decode true meanings, students

Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 102

Essay Example The geographical location of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is an arm of Johns Hopkins University and is mainly popular for giving medical related educational programs and its involvement in medical researches. It is one of the highest rated medical graduate schools in the United States of America. Johns Hopkins School of Medicine was founded by famous medical professionals including William Henry Welch who was a pathologist, William Osler who was an internist, William Stewart Halsted who was a surgeon, and Howard Atwood Kelly who was a gynecologist (Grauer 165). Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is one of the highest rated medical higher learning institutions in terms of their performance in medical researches. Ithas been impressive in medical studies in the past four years. It has in a very long period been ranked amongst the best three research oriented medical higher learning institutes in the United States of America. This is something that can attract any nurse that is willing to further their education. One thing about medical related professions is that they highly rely on findings from researches and studies (Flynn and Longmore 211). As a nurse getting a chance to further your education at an institution whose prowess in medical researches has been proved is something that does not require any second thoughts. Another thing that is notable about the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is that it has a team of highly capable teaching staff. In medical professions the skills and experience of instructors usually matters allot. This does not only matter in nursing, but also in other profession. At Johns Hopkins School of Medicine hiring of instructors and lecturers is always done on the virtue of the merits. Most of the lecturers who have been accorded contracts are people who have proved their ability in developing highly

Budgeting and management of organization-reflective review Essay

Budgeting and management of organization-reflective review - Essay Example The research covers a great deal of advantages of budgeting and how it helps an organization to increase its effectiveness and efficiency using budgeting. This research provides knowledge and the importance of budgeting in practical life. The disadvantages of budgeting are also covered in detail providing the drawbacks and flaws in budgeting. This research provides information and scenarios when budgeting should be used and when it should be ignored under the given situation. According to my view, the part that the research failed to address well was the other management tools and techniques that could be used by the company instead of budgeting. Too much emphasizes is laid on budgets whereas, companies are shifting from budgeting to other tools to monitor performance and accomplishment of goals and objectives such as balance scorecard and beyond budgeting. Other tools are not described in detail making budgets look superior over other tools. This research provides an extensive knowl edge of budgeting but this research somehow is overlooking the disadvantages of budgeting. The substitute management tools of budgets are limited making the research vague. Forecasting, balance scorecards and beyond budgeting are some of the most used techniques around the world but this research failed to cover the importance of these tools. ... For literature review, I had to surf the internet for articles and previous researches to begin my work with. This was an easy task as all the relevant information that I needed was already available on the internet from different sources. I just had to pick information from authentic sources. Finding articles regarding the topic was also an easy task as there was much about it on the internet. The difficulty that I faced was in the literature review process, it was consuming too much time. The information on budgets was vast and I had to choose only information that was relevant to my research. Reading the articles was the best part. Articles regarding the method and importance of budgeting in companies provided me with a lot of exposure. After reading those articles I learned the importance of budgeting in real life. To understand more about the concept of budgeting, I had to borrow some books from the library and went through them to provide me with additional and up-to-date infor mation. What I basically wanted to know through this research was that how could budgets help companies to improve their performance and the methods used by the companies to do so. The process of literature review took the most of my time as information regarding the topic had to be covered in detail to provide the importance of budgets in the company. The experience related to data collection and data analysis was tiring and more difficult than I assumed. The data was collected from secondary sources that included articles and previous researches that were conducted on budgeting. The primary data was collected through interviews from managers of different departments of the organization. It was difficult to gather information from the managers of different

Rate of cooling Essay Example for Free

Rate of cooling Essay The problem for this experiment is to investigate the rate of cooling in three different types of cups. They will be used as typical coffee cups for commercial purposes. The cups a polystyrene cup, a paper cup and a plastic cup. Water has a high specific heat capacity. This makes it a very useful material for storing and carrying heat energy. Its heat capacity is 4200 joules per kilogram per i C (4200J/kg i C). Heat tends to flow away from a hotter object to a cooler surroundings. Heat is mainly lost I conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. For this experiment I will be only using convection, radiation, evaporation because conduction is mainly in solids. Convection Convection mainly occurs in gasses and liquids gases and liquids are very poor conductors so convection is usually dominant process. When convection cant occur, the heat transfer by conduction is very slow. Convection only occurs when the more energetic particles move from hotter region to a cooler region and take their heat energy with them. Convection doesnt happen in solids because there are no particles movement. Radiation Radiation travels through anything transparent. Heat radiation is given out by anything warm or hot. The amount of it that is absorbed or released depends on the colour and texture of the material. Heat radiation is also called infra-red radiation. It consists purely of electromagnetic waves of a certain frequency. All objects continually absorb and release heat radiation. The hotter the object the more heat radiation it release. Dark surfaces absorb more heat radiation than bright surfaces. Silver surfaces reflect nearly all heat radiation falling on them. Evaporation Evaporation is when water vanishes without boiling it to change into gas. This is because some liquid molecules move faster than others and the ones close to the surface may escape and form a gas. Variables These are things that may change during an experiment The independent variable: These are things that I will decide to change e. g. the material of the cup, replacing equipment. The dependent variable: This is the measurement that is effected by the independent variable e. g. the rate of cooling. The control variable: These are the things that I will try to keep the same so I can make sure that its a fair test e. g. volume of water, room temperature, size of the cups etc. Hypothesis I predict that the polystyrene cup would cool down the slowest because it has thick walls and when you go to restaurants and ask for a hot drink they give it in polystyrene cup. I think the paper cup will cool down the quickest because its made out of paper and paper has thin walls and it absorbs water.

Psychology Of The Fraudster Profile Of Fraudsters Criminology Essay

Psychology Of The Fraudster Profile Of Fraudsters Criminology Essay It is important to understand the profile of a typical fraudster, by type of fraud he/she has committed, in order to control and detect a fraud. In case of an asset fraud, the person is generally someone who was not suspected, oftentimes least suspected. The profile of white-collar criminals is very different from blue-collar criminals, or street criminals. This statement makes fraud even more difficult to inhibit or identify. Who Commits Fraud? According to the principles mentioned above, one might conclude that fraud is caused mainly by factors external to the individual that include financial, economic, social, and political factors, and poor controls. But, what about the individuals? Are some people more inclined to to commit fraud than others? And if so, is that a more serious cause of fraud than the external and internal environmental aspects as discussed earlier? Data obtained from criminology and sociology gives the same impression. Start by making a broad view about people: Some individuals are honest all the time. Some individuals are deceitful all the time. Most individuals are honest some of the time. Some individuals are honest most of the time. A study was conducted to ask employees whether they are honest at work. Forty percent said they would not steal, 30 percent said they would, and 30 percent said they might. A part from those overviews about people, what can one say about fraud committers? About Lying, Cheating and Stealing, Gwynn Nettler, suggestions these understandings on cheaters and deceivers: People who have experienced failure are prone to cheat. People who are not liked and who hate themselves are more likely to be more deceitful. People who are thoughtless, capable of being distracted and unable to delay fulfilments are more likely to involve in deceitful crimes. People who have a sense of right and wrong (fear of anxiety and punishment; that is, awareness of disclosure) are more resistant to commit a crime. Intelligent people are more likely to be honest than uneducated people. Middle and elite-class people tend to be more honest than lower-class people. The easier it is to fraud and cheat, the more people will do so. Individuals have different needs and levels at which they will be adequately driven to lie, cheat, or steal. Lying, cheating, and theft increase when people are under stress to attain important objectives. The struggle to survive leads to deceit. Individuals lie, steal and cheat on the job in a variety of individual and administrative situations. The ways that are followed are: Personal variables Skills/abilities Attitudes/favourites Personal requirements/needs Morals/principles Organizational variables Type/scope of the job (meaningful work) Preparation/training provided Credit/acknowledgment system Significance of administration and management Clarity of duties Clarity of job-related objectives Interactive trust Motivational and moral environment (ethics and values of superiors and co-workers) External variables Amount of competition in the industry General financial conditions Social values (ethics of challengers and of social and political role models) The question rises; Why Do Workers Lie, Steal and Cheat on the Work? There are 25 reasons behind employee crimes that are looked by authorities in white-collar crime (criminologists, sociologists, psychologists, auditors, risk managers, police, and security experts): The employee believes he can escape from it. The employee thinks he/she badly needs or desires the money or articles that are stolen. The employee feels unsatisfied or disappointed about some part of the job. The employee feels upset or unhappy about some aspect of his personal life that is not related to job. The employee feels mistreated by the employer and wants to get even. The employee fails to think through the penalties of being caught. The employee thinks: everybody else cheats, so why not me? The employee thinks: theyre so big, stealing a little bit wont damage them. The employee doesnt know how to manage his/her own income so is always penniless and ready to steal. The employee feels that defeating the organization is a contest and experiment and not a matter of financial advantage alone. The employee was economically, socially, or traditionally deprived during childhood. The employee is compensating for an emptiness felt in his personal life and needs love, care, and friendship. The employee has no willpower and steals out of an impulse. The employee believes a friend at work has been subjected to embarrassment or misuse or has been treated unethically. The employee is just simply lethargic and will not work hard to earn enough to buy what he/she desires or needs. The organizations internal controls are so relaxed that everyone is attracted to steal. No one has ever been put on trial for stealing from the organization. Most employee thieves are caught by coincidence rather than by audit or design. Therefore, fright of being caught is not a warning to theft. Employees are not encouraged to discuss personal or financial problems at work or to seek managements advice and guidance on such matters. Employee stealing is a situational phenomenon. Each theft has its own former situations, and each thief has his/her own purposes. Employees steal for any reason the human mind and thoughts can call up. Employees never go to jail or get strict prison punishments for stealing, deceiving, or cheating from their employers. Human beings are weak and susceptible to to sin. Employees nowadays are morally, ethically, and mentally ruined and bankrupt. Employees tend to follow their superiors. If their superiors steal or cheat, then they are most likely to do the same. Laws must be sensible, fair in application and applied quickly and efficiently to be respected and obeyed. Company strategies that relate to employee honesty, like criminal laws in general must be sensible, reasonable, and projected to serve the companys best economic interests. The test of reasonableness for any company fraud policy is whether its terms are understandable, whether its punishments or preventions are appropriate to a real and serious matter, and whether its application is possible in a well-organized and legally effective way. But what particular employee actions are serious enough to be banned and/or punished? Any act that could or does result in significant loss, damage, or destruction of company assets should be forbidden. What is acceptable or considered significant will vary by organization, but wherever the limitations are defined, they must be well conversed, demonstrated by upper management, and applied as essential. The greatest warning to criminal conduct is a guaranteed and impartial justice; that means immediate detection and uneasiness, a quick and fair trial, and punishment according to the crime: loss of civil rights, honours, property, individual freedom, or societal approval. Having said all that, why is it that, regardless of the terrible consequences of criminal conduct, it still happens? Obviously, it is because the rewards obtained frequently go beyond the risk of uneasiness and punishment; that is, the troubles caused by punishment are not as severe as the pleasures of criminal conduct. The latter seems to be mainly true in cases of financial or white-collar crimes. Many times, when a fraud is noticed, the extent of punishment and penalty of the crime is sometimes without even paying back the fraud damages. So while prospective white collar criminals may believe they might get trapped, but still the consequences are below the satisfaction which they get by committing the crime. High-Level and Low-Level Thieves At high levels of administrative life, it is easy to steal because controls can be avoided or bypassed. The amounts that high-level managers steal, therefore, is likely to be greater than the amounts low-level employees steal. For example, according to the 2008 ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) RTTN, executives average about  £834,000 per fraud, managers about  £150,000, and employees about  £70,000. The number of events of theft, however, is greater at low levels of administrations because of the large number of employees found there. The ACFE RTTN has gathered a profile of fraudsters based on the information collected from CFEs (Certified Fraud Examiner) in its assessments. The more expensive frauds, in terms of cost or losses, are committed by fraudsters who (a) have been working with the company for a long time, (b) receive a high earnings, (c) are males, (d) are above 60 years of age, (e) are well educated (the higher the educational degree completed, the higher the damages), (f) work in groups rather than alone, and (g) have never been accused with anything criminal. The most common frauds, however, are done by fraudsters with a different profile. These fraudsters (a) have been a worker for about the same amount of time as the high-level thieves, (b) earn much less, (c) could be either male or female (sex doesnt matter), (d) are between the ages of 41 and 50, (e) have completed high school, (f) work alone, (g) and have generally not been charged with any criminal conduct. Hall and Singleton provide a similar profile for a usual fraudster in general. These criminals are (a) in an important position in the company, (b) are usually male, (c) are over 50 years old, (d) are married, and (e) are well educated. This profile is similar to the one from the ACFE RTTN, and leads us to this general conclusion: A white-collar criminal does not look like a criminal! Who Is Victimised By Fraud Most Often? Measures to protect against fraud by either organization insiders or outside dealers, suppliers, and contractors must be sufficient; that is, they must achieve the goal of control-cost-feasible protection of assets against damage, loss, or destruction. Cost-feasible protection means minimal expenses for full protection. Generating an organizational police state would be too much control. A sensible viewpoint on controls and countermeasures is the best, and may require involving staffs in creating control policies, plans, and procedures. A well-adjusted viewpoint considers the costs and benefits of the proposed new controls while developing a trusting culture that includes loyalty and honesty. A distrusting culture is often associated with frauds. However, complete trust with no answerability is the main cause of fraud. Fraud is therefore most widespread in organizations that have no controls, no trust, no ethical values, no profits, and no prospect. Similarly, the more these situations exist, the higher the risk of fraud. Observed evidence shows that the most common factor in all frauds committed is the lack of setting apart of duties with no compensating control- a situation commonly presents in small business units. Small businesses and establishments (e.g., charities) have a higher risk of fraud than any other size business, because they are more likely to have one accountant, no isolation of duties, and no compensating control, and those factors are the most common in fraud. Start with the amusing hypothesis that most people are honest. Its a nice way to look at the world, and it recalls childhood memories about learning that honesty is the best policy and George Washington telling his father, I cannot tell a lie. Unhappy to say, human past and human nature tell a different story, and so do the statistics that study them. While most societies clearly dislike violent crime and physical harm, many societies hold financial fraud, whatever its scale, as a less disgraceful offense. Charles Ponzi, creator of the Ponzi scheme, was famous in some regions as a folk hero and praised by many of the people he helped. Investors and executives, whose frauds can upset thousands or tens of thousands of lives, have historically been punished with comparatively light punishments or serve their time at a low-security federal tennis camp. Some scholars have called this attitude toward white-collar crime a falsification of our general societal admiration for intelligence. During much of the past century, psychologists and sociologists worked hard to understand the inner workings of people who commit white-collar crime. Edwin Sutherlands White Collar Crime, the most significant work in the field argued in 1939 that an individuals personality has no relevance to a tendency to commit such crimes. Somewhat, he said, economic crimes create from the situations and social bonds within an organization, not from the biological and psychological features of the individual. Sutherland also made the useful and obvious, observation that criminality is not limited to the lower classes and to social misfits but spreads out, particularly where financial fraud is concerned, to upper-class, socially well-adjusted people. Over the many decades since White Collar Crime was published, convincing studies have concluded that two aspects should be kept in mind while analysing the psychology and personality of the fraudster: The natural abilities of an individual, which differ widely and influence behaviour, including social behaviour The social abilities that are derived from people and in turn shape how the individual deals with other people From these studies of psychology, two common forms of financial fraudster have been noted: Calculating criminals who want to compete and to affirm themselves Situation-dependent criminals who are anxious to protect themselves, their families, or their businesses from a disaster Since these studies were published, a third form of criminal has appeared out of disastrous business failures and humiliations. We will call them power brokers. Calculating Criminals Calculating criminals are hunters. They tend to be repeat criminal acts, they have higher-than-average intellect, and theyre relatively well educated. They typically start their careers in crime later in life than other criminals. These hunters are generally motivated to risk taking-no surprise there-and they lack feelings of anxiety and sympathy. A correlated view, somewhat different in its prominence, was offered in a 1993 study of Wall Streets insider-trading scandals by a team of psychologists who proposed that individuals eager to commit such crimes had an external locus of control-that is, they do not have inner direction, self-confidence, and self-respect and were driven by their desire to fit in and be accepted. Additionally, the study found that they describe success by others standards. Situation-Dependent Criminals But the main bulk of corporate criminals are not hunters at all. They are situation-dependent offenders: apparently ordinary people who commit crimes without the intending to harm others. This is significant in understanding white-collar crime, because nearly all news reporting and much of the scholarly literature in the area focuses on shocking, highly publicized, and largely a typical cases and ignores the more common and ordinary criminals and offenses that account for most white-collar crimes. Typical White-Collar Criminal Older (30+ years) 55% male, 45% female Appeared to be from a stable family Above-average (postgraduate) education Less likely to have criminal record Good mental health Position of trust Comprehensive and full knowledge of accounting systems and their weaknesses Previous accounting experience Source: ACFE At the start of an investigation, the forensic accounting investigator often sits down with the client and examines the organizational chart. The forensic accounting investigator and the client talk about each employee one by one, about each employees work, and about what is known of the lifestyle of each. What about Amanda? the forensic accounting investigator might say, pointing to an employee on the chart. No, it could not be Amanda. She has been with us for 20 years, the client responds. She is always helping others with their duties. She is nice and rarely takes time off. My wife and I have been to her home. Our sons are on the same football team. The client may believe that what he knows, or thinks he knows, about Amandas character and removes her from the list of suspects of fraud. In fact, an experienced forensic accounting investigator will understand that Amanda fits the profile of a white-collar criminal. This is not to propose that all nice people are criminals but, rathe r, that most white-collar criminals give the appearance of being nice people, thereby fitting the exact profile of Amanda. Power Brokers Many of todays highly placed corporate criminals show features of each of the previous two categories, but they are different enough in their methods and motives to possess a category all their own: power brokers. Like many of us, you have read about their excesses and asked yourself how respected business leaders could have been so fooled as to believe that they could grab the financial and human resources of their companies to line their own pockets and deceive a wide range of investors, including their own employees. Are the U.S. corporate leaders now facing criminal charges, which began their careers with the intention of creating a company that would enrich themselves while finally destroying the dreams and plans of thousands of innocent victims- are employees and investors alike? Were all of them hunters? Probably not. But a combination of hunter characteristics and the circumstances of their positions led them to commit financial crimes. Fraudsters Do Not Intend To Harm Generally speaking, situation-dependent criminals carry out their frauds with no purpose to harm any one. A high-ranking executive of Westinghouse Electric Co. who was accused of price-fixing in 1961 was asked whether he thought his behaviour was illegal. He responded: Illegal? Yes, but not criminal. Criminal action means hurting someone and we did not do that. It is critical to an understanding of the psychology of such people to accept this key point: most of them carry out their frauds with no intention of doing harm, and they believe-they are able to convince themselves-that what theyre doing is not wrong. These people may even convince themselves that what theyre doing is for the good of the company and everyone associated with it, including employees, investors, creditors, and other constituencies. Or they may believe that they deserve the spoils they seize because they rationalize their crimes as immaterial, innocent, or deserved-but not wrong. In most cases, they start small, but with time as the fraud grows in size, usually encompassing more than one scheme. Kinds of Rationalization In many admission-seeking interviews, suspects confess to their crimes, but rarely do they say, I stole the money. Instead, they bring up their rationalization for the crime. Such rationalizations can be of many kinds: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It was a loan, and I had every intention of paying it back. See (pulling out a spreadsheet), I kept track of all my loans so that I could pay it all back one day. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ That accounting rule is confusing and subjective. Accounting for the transactions in the manner I chose is entirely acceptable. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ My boss has been cheating on his taxes for years. Im just getting my share. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Everyone in this industry takes kickbacks. Im sure my employer is aware of it, and thats why they dont pay me very much. They expect me to supplement my income with gifts from our suppliers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Im the hardest-working employee here, and I know my boss would give me a substantial raise if he could do it without other people knowing. Instead, I take a little bit, but Im actually saving the company money because only I get the raise.' à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ What do you expect me to do? You give me no health insurance coverage, and I need to provide for my children and my parents. They depend on me, and I cant let them down. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ There are a lot of good people here. If I didnt make up a few entries to give the appearance to corporate that we were making budgeted income, they would close our division and put 50 people out of work. I did it to save their jobs. In sum, rationalization enables a person to take that final step toward crime. Motivations for Fraud à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..In a 2001 article, The Psychology of Fraud, the authors noted that fraud, like other crime, can best be explained by three factors: a supply of motivated offenders, the availability of suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians-control systems or someone to mind the store. Financial motivators obviously have a big impact on the cause of financial crime. These can range from an employee with an inability to pay her domestic bills to a senior executive under financial strain because he knows that market factors have adversely affected the business and analysts will be watching the latest results with eagerness. In this case, the strain may go beyond pure financial impact, but also to stature and reputation. Take the recent case of Computer Associates and its former CEO, Sanjay Kumar, and two other company executives. The governments indictment noted, Computer Associates prematurely recognized $2.2 b illion in revenue in FY 2000 and FY 2001 and more than $1.1 billion in premature revenue in prior quarters. The government also noted that the SEC alleges that from 1998 to 2000, Computer Associates routinely kept its books open to record revenue from contracts executed after the quarter ended in order to meet Wall Street quarterly earnings estimates. Computer Associates agreed to settlements with the SEC and the Justice Department to the tune of $225 million and agreed to reform its financial accounting controls. Some theorists have taken a big-picture approach and argued that white collar crime is the inevitable outcome of the competitive ethic of capitalism. According to this theory, competition is the field on which egotism and recklessness can have full play. We are constantly bombarded by images of the wealth and success that can be achieved through winning in the great experiment in social Darwinism in which we live. The inevitable result of such competition is the recognition of the economic inequality of winners and losers, which can be internalized as the constant fear of failing. This discontent may be sufficient to make a person see white-collar crime as the great equalizing act. The drive for money and the trappings of success are, therefore, the motivators of the act. The situation in which the potential white-collar offender finds him- or herself plays a most significant role in determining whether a crime will be committed. The corporate culture lived daily at the workplace can often create enormous pressures to commit criminal acts. Examples are common in the famous cases of price-fixing, bribery, and manufacture of dangerous products that occurred throughout the last century. A corrupt corporate culture can lead to the inversion of all values. Loyalty can easily slip into complicity. Criminal behaviour becomes normal. Team-playing becomes conspiracy. Fear of dismissal, ostracism, or losing the favour of superiors can be compelling forces in the world of a department or small company. In such an atmosphere, one learns criminal behaviour in association with those who define such behaviour favourably, as Sutherland contended. These acts cannot be explained by a personal history of instability and deviance since stability and conformity are the principal characteristics of these criminals lives. Even while committing the crimes, white-collar offenders are able to lead their conventional lives, which are, indeed, their camouflage. Their conventionality and stability are the foundation of the trustworthiness that gives them the opportunity to commit the crime in the first place. It is this life of conventionality that gives the criminal act the character of an aberration. It is, however, the white-collar criminals power of rationalization that is one of the most amazing aspects of their behaviour. They are able to behave normally and aberrantly at the same time without feeling conflict. This behaviour is possible through the use of techniques of neutralization. These are acts of mental deftness that allow persons to violate behavioural norms without simultaneously seeing themselves as deviant or criminal. Such self exculpating explanations can occur both before and after the commission of a criminal act. The most common rationalization noted several times already in this unit is that financial crimes do not hurt other people. Embezzlers commonly tell themselves they are merely borrowing the money and intend to return it later without anyone else being affected. Many embezzlers justify it because they had to do it to pay mounting family bills. Everybodys doing it is frequently heard as an argument for systematic wrongful company behaviour. Corporate offenders often consider laws as an unjust or unnecessary form of government interference disrupting free market forces. They may even argue that breaking the law was necessary for the survival of the company. Employees frequently offer a moral justification for their thefts with the argument that their employer owed them the money. Fraud simply expressed their grievance. For example, they feel exploited and underpaid or hurt after receiving a smaller-than-expected bonus. Many feel justified after being passed over for promotion; others feel they can do the job just as well as, if not better than, the person with the higher education. Personal antipathies, anger after a reprimand from the boss, and the like can all be self-serving explanations for fraud. In rare cases, mental illness can drive a person to commit fraud through a wish to damage the company. Others can be motivated by pure egotism; they commit fraud just to show how smart they are. Yet others are driven by anti capitalist ideologies and think they are destroying the system from within. Auditors Need to Understand the Mind of the Fraudster In the introduction to Why Smart People Do Dumb Things, Mortimer Feinberg and John J. Tarrant begin: If you are of above average intelligence-and if you have mastered the use of high intelligence to solve problems and achieve goals-it is the premise of this book that you are at risk [of perpetrating a fraud] because of the strength of your cognitive equipment. The book recounts tale after tale of successful professionals and politicians who did something dumb and ruined their lives. It is also a book that can help auditors understand the mind of the white-collar criminal. Because auditors, within the time at their disposal, cannot verify every transaction, they must make assumptions based on audit evidence gathered until the point of the decision. The more auditors understand about why criminals do what they do, the better prepared they may be to determine the nature, timing, and extent of audit procedures relative to the risks identified during the planning stage and modified, as may be warranted, on the basis of the audit evidence found. Professional skepticism is the attitude that must drive the financial statement audit. If we lived in a perfect world in which no one made mistakes, or lied, or cheated, or stole, audits would be unnecessary. But we dont, and so audits are required. Even with effective auditing, at the end of every audit and forensic accounting investigation, uncertainty will remain. As auditors continue to focus on the fact that smart people do dumb things and on the conditions under which white-collar criminals may act, auditors may be able to better select transactions worthy of expanded testing and know also how to evaluate the results of those tests. The so-called fraud triangle, offers three conditions that tend to be present when frauds occur: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Incentive or pressure à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Opportunity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rationalization and attitude Conclusion As auditors focus on the number of people they encounter in the course of an audit, they would probably agree that a great many of those people would no doubt have opportunities to commit fraud. How many others also have the undisclosed incentive and ability to rationalize that are demonstrably part of the fraud triangle? There is no easy way to judge this. In the design of controls to prevent financial crime and in the performance of audit procedures, it is important to keep in mind the expression, Locks on doors keep out honest people. Predators, as noted earlier, have a good chance of circumventing most of the controls a company puts in place. Fraud deterrence and detection controls are designed, theoretically, to stop everyone else, but they wont, because it is unrealistic to expect controls that can be designed to stop everyone. Collusion, for example, may well defeat a well-designed control and may not be detected in a timely manner by individuals performing daily control activities. The best fraud deterrence mechanism is simple: create the expectation in your organization that wrongdoers will be caught and that punishment will be swift and commensurate with the offense. The emphasis on expectation is important. It can be brought about in a number of ways. Effective training and education on the importance of ethical conduct, background checks on all employees, regular fraud audits by forensic accounting investigators, and a strong internal control system are among the means. To create that perception, employees must also be well aware that their activities are being monitored, and all employees with access to financial assets and transactions must have a healthy respect for the robustness of the control system. If employees believe they will be caught and punished for wrongdoing, that belief may be enough to keep them from adding rationalization to incentive and opportunity.

Dental Prosthetic Options

Dental Prosthetic Options S.N.: Introduction: Prosthetic options to replace a missing tooth fall into two main categories: Fixed prostheses and removable prostheses. When choosing the suitable treatment option to replace a missing upper incisor, multiple variables involving the patient wishes, expectations, dentist skills and training, cost of treatment, and clinical findings should be taken into consideration (Al-Quran et al., 2011). These factors will have a strong influence on the short and long terms success of the treatment selected. Based on the conservation of neighbouring teeth and annual failure rates, dental implants are the treatment of choice to replace a missing central maxillary incisor, followed by conventional bridges, and removal partial dentures (Pjetursson Lang, 2008). Facial growth in relation to age: Craniofacial development is a continuous process that starts intra-uterine and has shown different rates between males and females (Brahim, 2005) . Skeletal maturation in males is reported to be reached at the age of 20, while females reach the maturation phase earlier, at the age of 17-18 years (Heij et al., 2006). Therefore, it has been recommended, when selecting the prosthetic option to replace a missing tooth, to take the patient’s age into consideration. Dental Implants should be avoided until the cessation of jaw development mentioned earlier (Daftary et al., 2013) or after the end of the growth spurt (Heij et al., 2006). If dental implants are used before the vertical maturation is reached, it will not grow vertically with the alveolar bone and will be submerged at different levels depending at the patient’s age when the implants were inserted (Brahim, 2005). Dental trauma and the surrounding tissues: In most scenarios, it is rare that a single incisor will be traumatized with no damage on adjacent incisors, surrounding bone, or soft tissues. If any damage sustained to neighbouring teeth, the status and prognosis of these teeth should be assessed, as it will have a strong impact on the selection of the definitive treatment option. Traumatic avulsion of teeth, account for 0.5% 3% of all dentoalveolar trauma, and it is associated with damage to the alveolar bone, specially the buccal plate (Andreasen, 1970). After tooth extraction, reduction of the alveolar bone height and width can be as high as 50% in the first year (Schropp L, 2004) with the highest amount of bone loss within the first three months (Pietrokovski Massler, 1967). Bone loss is not even between the buccal and palatal bone plates, with more bone loss in the buccal plate (Pietrokovski Massler, 1967) and bone width than height (Van Der Weijden et al., 2009). There are several treatment options that could be used for replacing a lost maxillary central incisor: Removable Partial Denture (RPD): RPD have the advantages of minimal clinical skills required, minimal chair time, and preservation of neighbouring teeth. On the other hand, the patient satisfaction is low, with a sense of insecurity, high risk of accidental breakage, and loss. Still, RPD is the quickest, cheapest replacement option of a missing incisor, and usually used as a temporary treatment until healing is complete and bone remodelling is minimal. Resin Retained Fixed Bridges (RRB): Resin retained bridges share the advantage of removable dentures of having minimal effect on abutment teeth with no risk of pulpal injury and the reversible nature of the prostheses. It is also relatively of low cost and acceptable aesthetic result (metal frame could be masked by opaque cement on expense of translucency). The commonest failure associated with RRB is frequent debonding of 20% over 5 years (Pjetursson et al., 2008) which could cause social embarrassment to the patient. The patient could also be given an Essex Type retainer with a single tooth in the gap as an emergency prosthesis until recementation of the resin retained bridge is done. RRB could be used as a final prosthetic option but more often is used as an interim measure as it could be reversed at any time, with 87.7% 5 years prognosis (Pjetursson et al., 2008) If the prosthesis is planned to be a temporary option, Rochette type wings are made with holes to facilitate frequent removal. Conventional Bridge: This is an irreversible treatment, replacing the missing tooth with a 2 or 3 units’ conventional bridge. These offer superior retention and aesthetics over RRB by the mean of full coverage of the abutment teeth. The main drawback is the need to reduce the sound tooth structure of the abutments with 20% risk of nerve damage and higher caries risk. The reduction of tooth structure is more for porcelain fused to metal or full ceramic/Zirconia crowns than full crown which is a requirement in the anterior aesthetic zone. According to previous studies, â€Å"if the adjacent teeth are severed, or in need of being crowned, the conventional bridge is to be preferred (Annual failure rate: 1.14%)† (Pjetursson Lang, 2008). The success rate is reported to be 90 % for 10 years and 72% for 15 years (Pjetursson et al., 2008) and (Burke Lucarotti, 2012). Endosseous dental implants: When considering the success rate, dental implants are reported to have the highest documented survival rate of 94% for 5 years (Attard Zarb, 2003) and 89% over 15 years (Pjetursson et al., 2008). Dental Implants have numerous advantages over the previously mentioned treatment options. Comparing dental implants to other fixed treatment modalities, there is no danger of pulpable damage of adjacent teeth, as no abutment teeth preparation is involved. Implants also facilitate the patient’s daily oral hygiene routines around the prosthesis, since there are no connectors between the prostheses and abutment teeth, making flossing possible. Furthermore, the maintenance and regular follow ups by the dentist is easier for dental implants. Removing a conventional bridge is a challenging task compared to screw retained implant supported crowns which could be removed and re-inserted multiple times when required (not applicable to cemented crowns). For implant supported restorations in the anterior maxillary region, a detailed patient assessment, implant site assessment, and proper treatment planning is the key for a successful restoration. The planning should be derived from the restorative point of view not guided by the availability of bone. The following points should be carefully assessed: Lip position at rest and smile: The patient’s aesthetic expectations should be coupled with the upper lip position at rest and when smiling. In most cases, 2 mm of the incisal edge of the central incisors should show at rest, and it could be either 100% of all the incisors (high smile line), more than 75% visible (medium smile line), or (low smile line) showing less than 75% of the incisors. With low smile line lip position, the aesthetic challenges are lower, and the emphasis on soft tissue contouring and papilla regeneration is also lower (Tjan et al., 1984). If the patient’s expectations are high while having high smile line, patient education should take place prior to implant treatment as the implant treatment could be deemed a failure if did not meet the patient’s aesthetic requirements despite been successful in every other aspect. Attached gingiva and surrounding soft tissue: The attached gingiva could have thick, moderate, or thin architecture. Thick gingiva is more common than the thin biotype; it appears as a more stippled, flat fibrous band of attached mucosa, masking the underlying bony contours. It is associated with higher resistance to recession, better soft tissue contouring, and resistance to peri-implant disease. On the other hand, thin gingival biotypes are found in 15% of population (Tjan et al., 1984) and it is a thinner mucosal layer with the bony scalloping showing through it. This type is more prone to exposure of the implant and compromising the aesthetic result (Tjan et al., 1984). The thin biotype has been associated with long triangular teeth and more incisally positioned contact points, while the thick biotype is associated with shorter, square crowns with more apically positioned contact points (hence, more papillary regeneration). Implant size used: Implant size has a direct effect on the emergence profile of the coronal restoration and aesthetics. Natural existing teeth and available bone are helping factors when selecting the right implant diameter, while implant length should provide a safety distance to the surrounding anatomical structures. The implant diameter should allow 1.5 mm between implant and neighbouring teeth (and 3mm between adjacent implant fixtures) (Jivraj Chee, 2006). The gingival biotype also should not be overlooked when selecting the fixture diameter, for example; if wider implants are used with thin gingival biotype, the risk of recession is higher (Rodriguez Rosenstiel, 2012). Implant position: For the most aesthetic emergence profile, implants should be placed 1.5 mm – 2 mm from the adjacent tooth, 3mm – 4mm apical to CEJ (Jivraj Chee, 2006), and ideally should be placed under the proposed cingulum of the coronal restoration. A diagnostic wax up and a prefabricated surgical stent are of very important in deciding the crown and implant positions, and evaluating the amount of bony defect and the need for bone graft. Transfaring the surgical stent into the patient’s mouth will allow the visualization of the amount of incisor show and smile lines. The implant position and angulation will dictate the abutment type and the retention method used for the restoration (screw or cement retained). Available bone quality and quantity: Bone density has been classified by Lekholm and Zarb (1985) into 4 categories: Homogenous compact bone, Thick cortical bone around dense trabecular bone, Dense trabecular bone covered by thin cortical bone, Very thin cortex enclosing minimal density trabeculae. Types 3 and 4 are associated with more failure rates, and are more found in the maxilla. Therefore, under -preparation of the osteotomy site could be done to gain higher initial stability. Branemark et al 1977 defined ossteointegeration as â€Å"direct structural and functional connection between living bone and load carrying implant†. Implant fixture should be in direct contact with healthy bone in three dimensions. Therefore, the amount of available bone required around any dental implant is 1.5 mm buccally and palatally, 3 mm between adjacent implants and at least 1.5mm -2mm between implants and adjacent teeth (Misch, 2008) and (Rodriguez Rosenstiel, 2012). If buccal bone width is not sufficient, a smaller diameter implant that will be functionally and aesthetically sound could be selected. It will also allow slight palatal positioning (Rodriguez Rosenstiel, 2012). Bone grafting/augmentation procedure could be done to add the bone thickness (Esposito et al., 2009) and bone could be sourced from: Patient’s own bone (Autogenous graft): commonly could be harvested from calvarian bone, iliac crest, mandibular ramus or chin. This provides highest reported success rates (Esposito et al., 2009). Different human bone (Allograft): usually from cadaveric bone. Bone undergoes special treatment to be deproteinized and freezed (Esposito et al., 2009). Animal sources (Xenograft) usually cows or pigs. Synthetic materials (Alloplast): artificial graft material which could be used solely or in conjunction with autogenous grafts (Esposito et al., 2009). Bone regeneration membranes: these are used to act as a barrier between the superficial soft tissue and the grafted bone or material to prevent ingrowth of the fibrous tissue and allow pure bone development. These membranes could be either natural or synthetic, resorbable or non- resporbable. If block bone graft is used, it should be allowed to heal for minimum 3 months before implant placement, while bone augmentation with alloplastic materials and membranes could be done simultaneously (Esposito et al., 2009). It is worth mentioning that porcine- derived bone and membranes may not be acceptable by some patients based on their religious beliefs and a specific consent should be obtained. The bone height will also impact the papilla formation, together with the crown shape and level of contact points; the papilla regeneration is favourable is square crown, broad apical contact points, and when the distance is around 4-5 mm between bone crest and contact points (Rodriguez Rosenstiel, 2012) and (Tarnow et al., 2003). Vertical bone augmentation has been shown to be unpredictable (Esposito et al., 2009) and the patient should be aware of the black triangles (lack of papilla) if vertical bone is deficient (Tarnow et al., 2003). Conclusion: Based on the previously discussed factors and the evidence available, dental implant would be the treatment of choice if the neighbouring teeth are of good prognosis and the aesthetic results are realistic. It is safe to place an implant in 20 years old male, as the growth of the jaws is complete. A diagnostic wax up and stent could be made to evaluate the aesthetics, and available bone. A 4.5 mm buccal width is not enough to place a suitable size implant in a suitable bony envelope, so a block done graft for will be needed before the implant placement. If the source of the trauma was sports related and likely to occur again, a mouth guard should be worn to protect the implant and teeth during activity. Bibliography Abt, E.C.A.B.W.H.V., 2012. Interventions for replacing missing teeth: partially absent dentition. Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online), (2). Al-Quran, Firas F., A.-G.R. N, A.-Z.B., 2011. Single-tooth replacement: factors affecting different prosthetic treatment modalities. BMC Oral Health, 11(1), p.34. Andreasen, J.O., 1970. Etiology and pathogenesis of traumatic dental injuries A clinical study of 1,298 cases. European Journal of Oral Sciences, 78(1-4), pp.329-42. Andreasen, J.O., 2007. Textbook and Color Atlas of Traumatic Injuries to the Teeth. 4th ed. Copenhagen: Blackwell Munksgaard. Attard, N.J. Zarb, G.A., 2003. Implant prosthodontic management of partially edentulous patients missing posterior teeth: The Toronto experience. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, 89(4), pp.352-59. Brahim, J.S., 2005. Dental implants in children. Oral and maxillofacial surgery clinics of North America, 17(4), pp.375-81. Burke, F.J.T. Lucarotti, P.S.K., 2012. Ten year survival of bridges placed in the General Dental Services in England And Wales. Journal of Dentistry, 40(11), pp.886-95. Daftary, F., Mahallati, R., Bahat, O. Sullivan, R.M., 2013. Lifelong craniofacial growth and the implications for osseointegrated implants. he International journal of oral maxillofacial implants, 28(1), pp.163-9. Day, P. Duggal, M., 2010. Interventions for treating traumatized permanent front teeth: avulsed (knocked out) and replanted. The Cochrane Library, (1). Eghbali, A., De Rouck, T., De Bruyn, H. Cosyn, J., 2009. The gingival biotype assessed by experienced and inexperienced clinicians. Journal of Clinical Periodontology, 36(11), pp.958-963. Esposito, M. et al., 2009. Interventions for replacing missing teeth: horizontal and vertical bone augmentation techniques for dental implant treatment (Review). The Cochrane Library, (4). Heij, D.G.O. et al., 2006. Facial development, continuous tooth eruption, and mesial drift as compromising factors for implant placement. The International journal of oral maxillofacial implants, 21(6), pp.867-78. Jivraj, S. Chee, W., 2006. Treatment planning of implants in the aesthetic zone. British Dental Journal, 201(2), p.77. Misch, C.E., 2008. Contemporary Implant Dentistry. 3rd ed. Mosby. Pietrokovski, J. Massler, M., 1967. Alveolar ridge resorption following tooth extraction. The Journal of prosthetic dentistry, 17(1), pp.21-7. Pjetursson, B.E. Lang, N.P., 2008. Prosthetic treatment planning on the basis of scientific evidence. Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, 35(1), pp.72-79. Pjetursson, B.E. et al., 2008. A systematic review of the survival and complication rates of resinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ bonded bridges after an observation period of at least 5 years. Clinical Oral Implants Research, 19(2), pp.131-41. Rodriguez, A.M. Rosenstiel, S.F., 2012. Esthetic considerations related to bone and soft tissue maintenance and development around dental implants: Report of the Committee on Research in Fixed Prosthodontics of the American Academy of Fixed Prosthodontics. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, 108(4), pp.259-67. S. Jivraj, W.C., 2006. Rationale for dental implants. BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL, 200(12), pp.661-65. Schropp L, W.A.K.L.K.T., 2004. Bone healing and soft tissue contour changes following single-tooth extraction: A clinical and radiographic 12-month prospective study. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, 91(1), pp.92-92. Tarnow, D. et al., 2003. Vertical distance from the crest of bone to the height of the interproximal papilla between adjacent implants. Journal of periodontology, 74(12), pp.1785-8. Tjan, A.H.L., Miller, G.D. The, J.G.P., 1984. Some esthetic factors in a smile. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, 51(1), pp.24-28. Van Der Weijden, F., Dell Acqua, F. Slot, D.E., 2009. Alveolar bone dimensional changes of postà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ extraction sockets in humans: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Periodontology, 36(12), pp.1048-58.

Essay on Food as a Control Mechanism in Handmaids Tale :: Handmaids Tale Essays

Food as a Control Mechanism in Handmaid's Tale      Food traditionally represents comfort, security, and family. We recall the traditional concept of comfort food and the large family dinners in Norman Rockwell's piece Freedom from Want. However, for many, food is also a serious, and potentially damaging, method of control. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are classic examples of psychological syndromes, related to control, that express themselves with eating disorders. Prisoners of war are denied food as the most basic method of torture and control. Like all humans, Offred, the main character of Margaret Atwood's Handmaid's Tale, finds that food is a central and important feature of life. Food has many meanings in the novel, nourishment, fertility, and luxury; however, this paper will focus on food as a control mechanism of Gilead's government. First, page 11 in the novel introduces tokens,à ® which are the method of payment for food in Gilead. Tokens do not have any writing on them at all, only basic pictures. Here it is important to recognize that handmaids, and all respectable women, in Gilead are not allowed to read. Gilead has biblical mandate for this rule, without doubt, yet the most significant aspect of the rule is its use as a control mechanism. Women are denied the power of knowledge, and hopefully, from the government's perspective, women will eventually lose all ability to gain any knowledge that is not fed to them. We see this same idea expressed on pages 25 and 27 when Offred described the storefronts. All the stores, but specifically the food markets, no longer have written names and signs. The names of these stores are all expressed using rudimentary pictures. As an example, a wooden sign with three eggs, a bee, and a cow indicates Milk and Honey. There is further significance of the tokens mentioned above. Because handmaids must use these tokens to purchase food, they have no choice or free will regarding food at this stage. The food they pick up at the store will be based purely on the tokens that have been given to them, they will hand these tokens to a man behind the counter, and he will hand her the food. It is very simple and extremely passive. The limitation of free will using tokens is expounded upon when Offred realizes that Milk and Honey has oranges, a rare luxury. Offred is longing for one of these fruits yet cannot have it because she doesn't have a token for it (25).

Hills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemingway Essay examples -- Hills

"Literature is a luxury: Fiction is a necessity" (Chesterton). Literature is a single phenomenon that will always remain in the lives of people throughout the years. According to Andre Maurois, "In literature, as in love, we are astounded by what is chosen by others." Fiction Literature is one of the most fascinating types of Literature. There are many types of Fiction Literature read across the world and with much selection, the greatest are short stories. Out of those, one very memorable short story is called "Hills Like White Elephants". The author, Ernest Hemingway, has created many intriguing stories with his recognizable syntax. The specific style he is known for may be childish and use only a few small lines, but nevertheless his writings are continuously read by many people. Like any exceptional author would, Hemingway manipulates his text to get across certain themes in the plot of his stories. A couple themes found in "Hills Like White Elephants" are doubt, choices, conseq uences, and decision-making. These themes are noticed by Hemingway's use of various different literary elements in the story. They help the reader better understand the true meanings behind "Hills Like White Elephants"' seemingly empty plot. The characters in this story are very believable because they play very realistic roles. For their situation, these characters are appropriately casted. The protagonist of this story is a girl named Jig. She is portrayed as a flat character where we only see one side of her throughout the story. We only see her doubt and worry over not being able to make a decision. The decision she is trying to make is whether or not to go through with an 'operation' that is not directly stated. We later infer that she... ...about life itself. May we all learn from this reading experience as well as gain knowledge about the world as we know it. Works Cited Akers, Tim. â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† Short Stories for Students. Ed. Vol. 6. Detroit: Gale Group, 1999. Short Stories for Students. Gale. Web. 8 Apr. 2015. Hemingway, Ernest. "Hills Like White Elephants". LitFinder for Schools. Gale. Web. 4 Apr. 2015.. Henningfeld, Andrews Diane. Overview of Hills Like White Elephants, for Short Stories for Students, The Gale Group, 1999. Web. 12 Apr. 2015. Johnston, Kenneth G. "'Hills Like White Elephants' Lean, Vintage Hemingway," in Studies in American Fiction, Vol. 10, No. 2, Autumn, 1982. Web. 12 Apr. 2015. Weeks, Lewis E. Jr., â€Å"Hemingway Hills: Symbolism in â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants,† in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 17, No. 1, Winter, 1980. Web. 4 Apr. 2015.

Terrorism Essay: Metaphors for Terror :: September 11 Terrorism Essays

Metaphors for Terror The administration's framings and reframings and its search for metaphors should be noted. The initial framing was as a "crime" with "victims" and "perpetrators" to be "brought to justice" and "punished." The crime frame entails law, courts, lawyers, trials, sentencing, appeals, and so on. It was hours before "crime" changed to "war" with "casualties," "enemies," "military action," "war powers," and so on. Donald Rumsfeld and other administration officials have pointed out that this situation does not fit our understanding of a "war." There are "enemies" and "casualties" all right, but no enemy army, no regiments, no tanks, no ships, no air force, no battlefields, no strategic targets, and no clear "victory." The war frame just doesn't fit. Colin Powell had always argued that no troops should be committed without specific objectives, a clear and achievable definition of victory, a clear exit strategy-and no open-ended commitments. But he has pointed out that none of these is present in this "war." Because the concept of "war "doesn't fit, there is a frantic search for metaphors. First, Bush called the terrorists "cowards"-but this didn't seem to work too well for martyrs who willing sacrificed their lives for their moral and religious ideals. More recently he has spoken of "smoking them out of their holes" as if they were rodents, and Rumsfeld has spoken of "drying up the swamp they live in" as if they were snakes or lowly swamp creatures. The conceptual metaphors here are Moral Is Up; Immoral Is Down (they are lowly) and Immoral People Are Animals (that live close to the ground). The use of the word "evil" in the administration's discourse works in the following way. In conservative, strict father morality (see Moral Politics, Chapter 5) evil is a palpable thing, a force in the world. To stand up to evil you have to be morally strong. If you're weak, you let evil triumph, so that weakness is a form of evil in itself, as is promoting weakness. Evil is inherent, an essential trait, that determines how you will act in the world. Evil people do evil things. No further explanation is necessary. There can be no social causes of evil, no religious rationale for evil, no reasons or arguments for evil. The enemy of evil is good. If our enemy is evil, we are inherently good. Good is our essential nature and what we do in the battle against evil is good.

Literacy Essay Essay

For as long as I can remember literature has always played an important role in my life. As a young child, I can remember how excited I’d be at story time each night before bed. My interest in literature carried on throughout my school years†¦ from kindergarten†¦ when I was placed in the red bird group, which was the group of strongest readers†¦. to high school†¦when I had the benefit of being taught by one of the best English teachers ever, Ms. Irena King. Now as an adult and professional, I am very appreciative of the literary foundation that was laid for me by my family and my teachers. I understand how important literacy is in everyday life. First, as a young child, literacy played a very important role in my life even before I could read. I was always fond of books of all kinds. Coloring books, magazines, and picture books†¦I loved them all. I remember each trip to the grocery store; I would always get a new â€Å"Little Golden Book†. I absolutely had to have the entire collection and would want them read to me each night before bed. My favorite of this collection was â€Å"The Gingerbread Man†. I would sit for hours and look at the pictures. My mother would often encourage me to keep an interest in books. She always kept a subscription of â€Å"Highlights Magazine† for me and I would watch the mail each day in hopes that a new issue had arrived. As I grew older, my love for books did not change, but the type of books I wanted did. I had the largest collection of â€Å"Sweet Valley High† books and was a faithful subscriber to â€Å"Fresh Magazine†. I think that these are some of my fondest memories from my childhood, and I am so appreciative of my family’s support of my passion for reading. Next, my interest for literature carried on from my early years to my school years. This was very evident when I started kindergarten. I vividly remember there were different groups within our kindergarten class.

Ancient Art Essay

1. Between 35,000 bce to 12, 000 bce, people back then used to live a simple life that survive by means hunting. This period was called the Paleolithic era which means â€Å"old stone age. † The name was derived from the stone tools which were the main devices that were utilized by the early inhabitants to perform their daily activities for subsistence. It was also during this early period that man started to create artworks on the surface walls of caves. This later on became know as â€Å"paleolithic art† or â€Å"cave paintings† (Hoover). Most of the cave drawings or painting used animals as the subject matter. The reason behind this is that the animals were perceived as â€Å"either those needed for food and that the paintings were some type of ritual related to the hunt, or that the animals were sacred and were given god-like qualities. † More so, these visual artworks were considered as â€Å"calendars or almanacs, ‘coming of age’ ceremonies, records of tribal migrations and mystic paintings during a shamanistic trance. † Some of the examples of these paleolithic cave paintings are the following: Cow and a horse from Lascaux cave in France, â€Å"Big Cats† from Chauvet cave in France and the Horse at Lascaux cave in France. The animal theme was prevalent in these three paintings. More so, the colors used were mostly concentrated on earth tones such as red, brown, yellow and black. At that time, the resources of man were limited so the color scheme was monochromatic but with just a little touch of bold colors. For the outlines and silhouette of the animals, it was rigid and not proportional which was caused by the uneven stone surfaces. Also, it lacked depth making it appear two-dimensional. However, cave artists have mastered color blending that added some drama to the overall look of the painting. In Ancient Egypt, the royals were treated with utmost respect during their lifetime as well as in their after life. In order for them to be immortalized, sculptures were made in their honor. Also, it is to assure that the elites and royalist’s identity will be for eternity. The sculpture of King Menkaure and his Queen Khamerernebty is a clear example of this ancient practice. The statue of the two royal figures measures 4 feet 6. 5 inches in length and it is located within the pyramid of Menkaure which is the â€Å"smallest of the Great Pyramids. † The sculpture is primarily composed of a common material found in ancient Egypt, which is slate. The statue’s perfect body proportions and regal body gestures displayed Menkaure and Khamerernebty’s royalty. Back then, it was part of tradition that artists should represent their kings and queens in an ideal manner. Their flaws or physical defects should not be highlighted so that the public would forever remember them in a good light. Moreover, the formality of their position wherein the arm of Khamerernebty was wrapped around the torso of Menkaure and both their legs were straight and placed close together was intentional to ensure that the statue would last a lifetime. â€Å"By making the figures very compact and solid without any arms or legs projecting out, the sculpture has very few breakable parts. † Also, the headdress worn by the king as well as the â€Å"queen’s long hair† served as a support to the neck which is considered to be the most delicate part of the statue. More so, the perfect posture and affectionate gesture of the king and queen demonstrated that they were related through marriage. This strategic positioning of the figures was meant to look like that they are associated with each other. The artists wanted the viewers to immediately determine that King Menkaure and his Queen Khamerernebty are husband and wife and that they will forever remain that for the â€Å"rest of time† (Art History Adventure). Works Cited Hoover, Marleen. â€Å"Art of Paleolithic and Neolithic Eras. † 15 August 2006. San Antonio College Visual Arts and Technology Department. 17 November 2008 . â€Å"Menkaure and Khamerernebty, Gizeh, Egypt, 2490-2472 BCE, slate. † n. d. Art History Adventure. 17 November 2008 .

Unilever Strategy for Organising and Structuring Its Global Operations.

Unilever is a complex global organization that has a portfolio of 400 brands, spanning 14 categories in home and personal care and food products. The company has 163,000 employees in the 170 countries within which it operates (Unilever, 2010). Organizations such as Unilever face the challenge of configuring a global structure that â€Å"works well in diverse locations but also brings units together in a coordinated fashion† (Shenkar & Luo, 2007, p. 312). Given its wide range of products and the diversity of countries in which it operates, Unilever has to employ a global organizational strategy that addresses its global complexity and the diversity of its product portfolio. In its portfolio, there are some product lines that can be extended to new markets with little or no modification, while there are others that need to be modified to suit the local preferences. For example, chemical products are highly standardized and require little variation for local markets (Child, 2005, p. 45). Standardization of such products creates economies of scale in production and requires a â€Å"high level of global coordination and integration† (Child, 2005) and centralized R&D. On the other hand, some of Unilever’s products, such as packaged foods, require modification to suit local tastes and cultures. There are no production economies of scale for such categories and product development has to be facilitated locally. These factors present two scenarios for the company – striving for high global integration in the case where products can be introduced to new markets without modification and striving for high local responsiveness where there is need for modification to meet local preferences. Unilever has to therefore adopt a global organizational structure that addresses the two scenarios. The organization employs a transnational strategy, which is best suited for Unilever’s global operations, as it is faced with high pressure for both local responsiveness and global integration (Child, 2005, p. 43; Shenkar & Luo, 2007, p. 312). Unilever also uses the transnational strategy to organize its functions. Its sales, distribution and promotional tasks are locally responsive and are decentralized to suit individual markets, whereas the R&D function is globally integrated to leverage learning in the different markets. The transnational strategy enables Unilever to leverage the advantages of low cost in conjunction with the advantages of differentiation. Unilever adopted the transnational strategy mainly in esponse to competition from Procter and Gamble, which was already pursuing a transnational strategy by 1990 (Child, 2005, p. 247). However Unilever is still lagging behind P&G, in terms of revenues, marketing and innovation, because it has faced difficulty in reorganizing its activities to meet the requirements of a transnational strategy. The transnational strategy is both demanding and expensive to implement. It also requires a â€Å"flat† hierarchy (Child, 2005, p. 249) and Unilever has gone through a process of reorganizing its structure through the â€Å"One Unilever† programme, which was launched in 2005. The programme resulted in â€Å"better allocation of resources, faster decision-making and a lower cost level† (Unilever, 2007) and enables the organization to leverage its scale both globally and locally. References: †¢ Child, J. (2005) Organisation: contemporary principles and practice. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 241-253 †¢ Shenkar, O. & Luo, Y. (2007) International business. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. †¢ Unilever Website. Available from: http://www. unilever. com

Managerial Economics Essay

Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics 4. Describe the importance of the â€Å"other things equal† assumption in managerial economic analysis. 5. Describe what constitutes a market, distinguish competitive from non-competitive markets, and discuss imperfect markets. 6. Emphasize the globalization of markets. NOTES 1. Definition. Managerial economics is the science of directing scarce resources to manage cost effectively. 2. Application. Managerial economics applies to: (a) Businesses (such as decisions in relation to customers including pricing and advertising; suppliers; competitors or the internal workings of the organization), nonprofit organizations, and households. (b) The â€Å"old economy† and â€Å"new economy† in essentially the same way except for two distinctive aspects of the â€Å"new economy†: the importance of network  effects and scale and scope economies. i. network effects in demand – the benefit provided by a service depends on the total number of other users, e.g., when only one person had email, she had no one to communicate with, but with 100 mm users on line, the demand for Internet services mushroomed. ii. scale and scope economies – scaleability is the degree to which scale and scope of a business can be increased without a corresponding increase in costs, e.g., the information in Yahoo is eminently scaleable (the same information can serve 100 as well as 100 mm users) and to serve a larger number of users, Yahoo needs only increase the capacity of its computers and links. iii. Note: the term open technology (of the Internet) refers to the relatively free admission of developers of content and applications. (c) Both global and local markets. 3. Scope. (a) Microeconomics – the study of individual economic behavior where resources are costly, e.g., how consumers respond to changes in prices and income, how businesses decide on employment and sales, voters’ behavior and setting of tax policy. (b) Managerial economies – the application of microeconomics to managerial issues (a scope more limited than microeconomics). (c) Macroeconomics – the study of aggregate economic variables directly (as opposed to the aggregation of individual consumers and businesses), e.g., issues relating to interest and exchange rates, inflation, unemployment, import and export policies. 2 Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics 4. Methodology. (a) Fundamental premise – economic behavior is systematic and therefore can be studied. Systematic economic behavior means individuals share common motivations and behave systematically in making economic choices, i.e, a person who faces the same choices at two different times will behave in the same way both times. (b) Economic model – a concise description of behavior and outcomes: i. focuses on particular issues and key variables (e.g., price, salary), omits considerable information, hence unrealistic at times; ii. constructed by inductive reasoning; iii. to be tested with empirical data and revised as appropriate. 5. Basic concepts. (a) Margin vis a vis average variables in managerial economics analyses. i. marginal value of a variable – the change in the variable associated with a unit increase in a driver, e.g., amount earned by working one more hour; ii. average value of a variable – the total value of the variable divided by the total quantity of a driver, e.g., total pay divided by total no. of hours worked; iii. driver – the independent variable, e.g., no. of hours worked; iv. the marginal value of a variable may be less that, equal to, or greater than the average value, depending on whether the marginal value is decreasing, constant or increasing with respect to the driver; v. if the marginal value of a variable is greater than its average value, the average value increases, and vice versa. (b) Stocks and flows. i. stock – the quantity at a specific point in time, measured in units of the item, e.g., items on a balance sheet (assets and liabilities), the world’s oil reserves in the beginning of a year; ii. Flow – the change in stock over some period of time, measured in units per time period e.g., items on an income statement (receipts and expenses), the world’s current production of oil per day. (c) Holding other things equal – the assumption that all other relevant factors do not change, and is made so that changes due to the factor being studied may be examined independently of those other factors. Having analysed the effects of each factor, they can be put together for the complete picture. 6. Organizational boundaries. (a) Organizations include businesses, non-profits and households. (b) Vertical boundaries – delineate activities closer to or further from the end user. (c) Horizontal boundaries – relate to economies of scale (rate of production or delivery of a good or service) and scope (range of different items produced or delivered). 3 Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics (d) Organizations which are members of the same industry may choose different vertical and horizontal boundaries. 7. Competitive markets. (a) Markets. i. a market consists of buyers and sellers that communicate with one another for voluntary exchange. It is not limited by physical structure. ii. in markets for consumer products, the buyers are households and sellers are businesses. iii. in markets for industrial products, both buyers and sellers are businesses. iv. in markets for human resources, buyers are businesses and sellers are households. v. Note: an industry is made up of businesses engaged in the production or delivery of the same or similar items. (b) Competitive markets. i. markets with many buyers and many sellers, where buyers provide the demand and sellers provide the supply, e.g., the silver market. ii. the demand-supply model – basic starting point of managerial economics, the model describes the systematic effect of changes in prices and other economic variables on buyers and sellers, and the interaction of these choices. (c) Non-competitive markets – a market in which market power exists. 8. Market power. (a) Market power – the ability of a buyer or seller to influence market conditions. A seller with market power will have the freedom to choose suppliers, set prices and influence demand. (b) Businesses with market power, whether buyers or sellers, still need to understand and manage their costs. (c) In addition to managing costs, sellers with market power need to manage their demand through price, advertising, and policy toward competitors. 9. Imperfect Market. (a) Imperfect market – where one party directly conveys a benefit or cost to others, or where one party has better information than others. (b) The challenge is to resolve the imperfection and be cost-effective. (c) Imperfections can also arise within an organization, and hence, another issue in managerial economics is how to structure incentives and organizations. 10. Local vis a vis global markets. (a) Local markets – owing to relatively high costs of communication and trade, some markets are local, e.g., housing, groceries. The price in one local market is independent of prices in other local markets. 4 Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics (b) Global markets – owing to relatively low costs of communication and trade, some markets are global, e.g., mining, shipping, financial services. The price of an item with a global market in one place will move together with the pries elsewhere. (c) Whether a market is local or global, the same managerial economic principles apply. (d) Note: Falling costs of communication and trade are causing more markets to be more integrated across geographical border – enabling the opportunity to sell in new markets as well as global sourcing. Foreign sources may provide cheaper skilled labor, specialized resources, or superior quality, resulting in lower production costs and/or improved quality. ANSWERS TO PROGRESS CHECKS 1A. The managerial economics of the â€Å"new economy† is much the same as that of the â€Å"old economy† with two aspects being more important – network effects in demand and scale and scope economies. 1B. Vertical boundaries delineate activities closer to or further from the end user. Horizontal boundaries define the scale and scope of operations. ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Marketing over the Internet is a scaleable activity. Delivery through UPS is somewhat scaleable: UPS already incurs the fixed cost of an international collection and distribution network; it may be willing to give Amazon bulk discounts for larger volumes of business. 2. Number of cars in service January 2002 + production + imports – exports – scrappage during 2002 = Number of cars in service January 2003. Number of cars in service is stock; other variables are flows. 3. [omitted]. 4. No, models must be less than completely realistic to be useful. 5. (a) Average price per minute = (210 + 120 x 4)/5 = 138 yen per minute. (b) Price of marginal minute = 120 yen. 6. (a) Flow; (b) Stock; (c) Stock. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics 7. (a) The electricity market includes buyers and sellers. (b) industry consists of sellers only. The electricity 8. (a) False. (b) False. 9. [omitted]. 10. If there are scale economies, the organization could product at a lower cost on a larger scale, which means wider horizontal boundaries; and vice versa. 11. Yes. Horizontal boundaries: how many product categories should it sell? Vertical boundaries: should it operate its own warehouses and delivery service? 12. Intel has relatively more market power. 13. (b). 14. Both (a) and (b). 15. Competitive markets have large numbers of buyers and sellers, none of which can influence market conditions. By contrast, a buyer or seller with market power can influence market conditions. A market is imperfect if one party directly conveys benefits or costs to others, or if one party has better information than another. WORKED ANSWER TO DISCUSSION QUESTION Jupiter Car Rental offers two schemes for rental of a compact car. It charges $60 per day for an unlimited mileage plan, and $40 per day for a time-and-mileage plan with 100 free miles plus 20 cents a mile for mileage in excess of the free allowance. a. For a customer who plans to drive 50 miles, which is the cheaper plan. What are the average and marginal costs per mile of rental? (The marginal cost is the cost of an additional mile of usage.) b. For a customer who plans to drive 150 miles, which is the cheaper plan. What are the average and marginal costs per mile of rental? c. If Jupiter raises the basic charge for the time-and-mileage plan to $44 per day, how would that affect the average and marginal costs for a customer who drives 50 miles? 6 Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics Answer (a) It is helpful to sketch the total rental cost as a function of the mileage (see figure below). The breakeven between the two plans is at 200 miles per day. For 50 miles, the time-and-mileage plan is cheaper. Average cost = $40/50 = 80 cents per mile. Marginal cost = 0. Total cost ($) time-and-mileage plan unlimited mileage plan $60 $40 0 100 200 Quantity (miles per day) (b) For the 150 mile customer, the time-and-mileage plan is still cheaper. Average cost = $(40 + 0.2 x 50)/150 = 33 cents per mile; marginal cost = 20 cents per mile. (c) After the increase in the basic charge, the average cost = $(44 + 0.2 x 50)/150 = 36 cents per mile, while marginal cost = 20 cents per mile. The increase in the basic charge doesn’t affect the marginal cost. 7